Wild boars, scientifically known as Sus scrofa, have adapted to survive across various continents, with their strong presence and adaptability sparking admiration, reverence, and sometimes conflict [1, 2]. In Thailand, these animals symbolize resilience and are known in Thai as หมูป่า (Moo Paa). Although wild boars hold a positive image, their impact on local agriculture and human interactions has led to complex community attitudes and responses.
Wild boars belong to the Suidae family and are closely related to domesticated pigs. They are among the most widespread mammals, with populations thriving from Eurasia to North Africa and introduced populations spanning the Americas and Oceania [3, 4]. Their ability to adapt to varied climates and habitats has led to a classification by the IUCN as a species of most minor concern, underscoring their resilience and substantial role in ecosystems worldwide [5].
Knowledge about wild boars varies significantly across regions, often shaped by people’s proximity to wild boar habitats and the nature of their encounters. Wild boars are highly adaptable and can thrive in environments ranging from forests to farmlands [1]. Their physical size varies according to geography, with boars in northern regions growing significantly more significantly than their tropical counterparts, reflecting the impact of climate and habitat on their physiology [6].
Wild boars are equipped with defining physical traits that assist in their survival, including their tusks, which are critical for both defense and mating displays. The tusks on male wild boars can grow up to 12 cm, and these curved, formidable weapons are used to ward off predators and rivals during mating season [3, 7]. In contrast to domestic pigs, wild boars have dense fur coats, which vary in color but are predominantly dark brown or black, aiding them in camouflage within forested environments [3].
In their social lives, wild boars exhibit complex group dynamics. In contrast, males tend to live solitary lives, and females and their offspring form social units known as sounders [1, 3]. These groups, often comprising up to 50 individuals, show a strong hierarchy led by dominant females. The cohesive nature of these groups offers protection and increased foraging efficiency, though males join only during the mating season, displaying aggression to secure mating rights [3].
Human interaction with wild boar has existed for thousands of years, primarily because of the food chain cycle, in which humans hunted boar as a source of protein. Archaeological evidence shows that wild boar has been hunted since the Paleolithic era, when humans used the meat, skin, and bones of wild boar for daily needs [1, 3]. As agriculture developed, when humans began to develop agriculture projects, wild boar often attacked farmland, causing crop damage and leading to conflicts with humans [3].
The economic impact of wild boar is very significant, especially in agricultural regions whose livelihoods depend on crop yield products. For example, in the US, annual damage caused by wild boar disturbances is estimated to reach $ 1.5 billion, including direct damage and management costs [8, 9]. In Thailand and other regions, wild boar is also considered an agricultural pest, often leading to financial losses in the farming sector and sometimes even threatening farmers’ safety due to frequent attacks on humans. In 2019, farmers in Ratchaburi complained about the attack of wild boars from the Phachee River Wildlife Reserve. There are at least 10 wild boars to damage the pineapple and cassava crops across the three rai fields in the Ban Kha District, which caused a loss of 70,000 baht [10]. More recently, in 2023, The Independent reported the CCTV footage of a wild boar breaking into a residential area in Chiang Mai, Thailand, and attacking residents [11].
In Thailand, the interaction between wild boar and humans is also influenced by the community’s cultural practices and consumption patterns, which is shown by the increasing consumption of bush meat among urban communities. Research from Globalscan (2021) published by TRAFFIC and Zoological Society London (ZSL) found that in Thailand, 32% of the urban population consumed bush meat in the past year, even though some of it was obtained illegally [12]. Wild boar meat (36%) and red junglefowl (22%) are the most commonly consumed. In fact, according to the study, the primary consumers of bush meat in Thailand are urban residents who are 18-30 years old and generally have a higher disposable income. They consume bush meat while traveling or at other celebration events [12, 13].
The consumption of wildlife/bush meat in Thailand is indeed not forbidden per se, but if the meat is obtained through illegal ways such as poaching, the activity can be categorized as a criminal offense. This is regulated in the 2019 Wildlife Protection Act, which states that illegal consumption of wildlife meat violates the law of the culprit and can be rewarded with fines, prison sentences, or both [14]. However, despite legal restrictions on hunting and consumption of bush meat in Thailand, the demand for bush meat, including wild boar meat, remains high. This is mainly due to cultural beliefs among the community about the health benefits of bush meat consumption and the perception that meat is a delicious dish that can improve Social prestige [15].
Wild boar meat is the most common type of wildlife meat consumed in Thailand because wild boar is easily hunted, and the meat is easily processed into various kinds of dishes. Hunting wild boar in Thailand is often carried out by indigenous communities, such as the Hmong tribe, which inhabit hilly areas in northern Thailand, primarily for domestic consumption [16]. In Northern Thailand and the Northeastern (Isan) regions, traditional dishes are made from raw meat (usually derived from wild boar meat) called ลาบ or “Larb.” Larb consists of finely chopped raw meat mixed with typical spices of northern Thailand and chili. This traditional dish is commonly served during major celebrations such as Songkran and Loy Kratong in North Thailand and Isan [17].
Wild Boar as Reservoirs of Viruses and Bacteria
Although not prohibited, the consumption of bush meats such as wild boar does not pose a risk. Wild boar is the main reservoir of various viruses and zoonotic bacteria that can be transmitted to humans, including the hepatitis E virus, the Japanese encephalitis virus, and the swine flu virus [15, 18]. Not properly processed (undercooked or raw) will pose a serious risk to human health.
At least in the last few decades, zoonotic virus and bacterial infections from wild boar to humans have frequently occurred in Thailand. In 2009, there were two cases of Brucella Suis infection in humans reported by the Department of Disease Control due to the consumption of wild boar meat. This incident occurred when some hunters processed wild boar meat without adequate protection and consumed it undercooked [15]. In 2010, there were also cases of Streptococcus Suis infection due to the consumption of undercooked wild boar meat in Lampang Province, Thailand. This incident happened to seven villagers, with three of them suffering from a fatal infection. In addition, wild boar is also a source of other parasitic zoonotic infections, such as Trichinella spp. and Toxoplasma Gondii, with the first outbreak of Trichinellosis in Thailand occurred in 1962 in Mae Hong Son Province, which caused 56 cases and 11 deaths. Since then, Trichinellosis has occurred almost every year in Thailand which is associated with the habit of consuming undercooked bush meat, especially in Thailand’s rural areas [15, 17]
With an increase in human interaction with wild boar due to the massive clearing of forest land for agricultural areas in many countries, it is essential to find a balanced way to manage conflicts between humans and wild boar. There is nothing wrong with opening land and cultivating it into fertile and productive areas; however, on the other hand, we also have the responsibility to maintain the balance of the environment by respecting the living space of wild boar. By understanding the role of wild boar in the forest ecosystem, we can develop a strategy that allows wild boar and surrounding communities to coexist. This approach can help create a sustainable future that respects nature’s complexity.
It is also crucial to increase public awareness regarding health risks related to wildlife/bush meat consumption, especially wild boar, mainly related to zoonotic disease. When processing wild boar, people must cook it carefully so that all bacteria and viruses contained within it are effectively eliminated, thereby safeguarding the health and safety of the community.
References
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https://www.thainationalparks.com/species/wild-boar. - khaosok.com. Wild Boar Sus Scrofa. 2019; Available from:
https://www.khaosok.com/national-park/wild-boar/ - Albarella, U., et al., Pigs and humans: 10,000 years of interaction. 2007: OUP Oxford.
- Otfinoski, S., Pigs and hogs by Steven Otfinoski. 2010, Newyork: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark
- Keuling, O., et al., Eurasian wild boar Sus scrofa (Linnaeus, 1758). 2018.
- Massei, G., S. Roy, and R. Bunting, Too many hogs? A review of methods to mitigate impact by wild boar and feral hogs. Human-Wildlife Interactions, 2011. 5(1): p. 79-99.
- Mayer, J.J., J.E. Garabedian, and J.C. Kilgo, Human fatalities resulting from wild pig attacks worldwide: 2000–2019. Human–Wildlife Interactions, 2023. 17(1): p. 4.
- Vaske, J.J., et al., Beliefs, perceived risks and acceptability of lethal management of wild pigs. Wildlife Research, 2020. 48(3): p. 202-208.
- Zhou, X.-H., et al., A quantitative analysis of public preferences for the wild boar management in urban and rural China. Global Ecology and Conservation, 2023. 41: p. e02353.
- Srinuanchan, S., Farmers traumatised by boar attacks on pineapples, cassava, in Bangkok Post. 2019, Bangkok Post: Bangkok, Thailand.
- Browning, O., ‘Crazed’ wild boar rams garden gate and attacks terrified resident, in The Independent. 2023, The Independent.
- Campbell, S., Burgess, G., Watson, S., Compton, J. TRAFFIC, Situation analysis: Social and Behaviour Change Messaging on Wildlife Trade and Zoonotic Disease Risks, in TRAFFIC International. 2021, TRAFFIC International: Cambridge, United Kingdom.
- B.Tribune, “Kind Dining” aimed at discouraging urban youngsters from consuming wild meat, in Bangkok Tribune. 2021, Bangkok Tribune: Bangkok, Thailand.
- Chaiyong, S., Saying no to illegal wild meat, in Bangkok Post. 2022, Bangkok Post: Bangkok, Thailand.
- Awaiwanont, N., P. Pongsopawijit, and P. Paulsen, Bushmeat consumption and possible risks to consumers in Thailand. Trends in game meat hygiene: From forest to fork, 2014: p. 99-108.
- Tungittiplakorn, W. and P. Dearden, Hunting and wildlife use in some Hmong communities in northern Thailand. Natural History Bulletin of the Siam Society, 2002. 50(1): p. 57-73.
- Yera, H., et al., Human trichinellosis in Southeast Asia, 2001–2021. Food and Waterborne Parasitology, 2022. 28: p. e00171.
- Meng, X.J., D.S. Lindsay, and N. Sriranganathan, Wild boars as sources for infectious diseases in livestock and humans. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 2009. 364(1530): p. 2697-2707.